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- Historic Lincolnshire -
Introduction
Lincolnshire is a county with a unique history due to its long coastline, diverse geology and topography, its position in Britain and its size as the second largest in England. All these factors have had an impact on societies activities through the centuries to present day.
The Setting
Lincolnshire is a large distinct region bordered by the North Sea to the east, the Humber estuary to the north, a substantial length of the river Trent to the north- west and an area of Fen to the south. Natural environments of Fen, chalk, limestone upland and wide valleys have dictated the societies activities in Lincolnshire through the years.
220 million years ago, the oldest rock beds were formed during the Triassic period, which is part of the larger Mesozoic era. During this time the first mammals appeared. The small area of Keuper Marls, located in the extreme north-west of the country beneath the Isle of Axholme, dips eastward and is over-laid - first by clays of the Lower Jurassic period, then by lime stones of the Middle Jurassic period and further clays of the Upper Jurassic period. Chalk beds were deposited on top of sands and clays in the Wolds area during some 75 million years. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, the region was almost entirely submerged beneath the sea until the end of the Upper Cretaceous era, 65 million years ago, when it was uplifted slightly above the sea level. The landscape at present, was largely formed by the effects of climatic changes, which have alternated between ice ages and warm interglacial periods. The ice ages being the most severe, covering an area under an ice sheet, hundreds of metres thick. The most dramatic of which was an Anglian ice sheet that reached as far south as London. Its retreat revealed a scoured surface, deepening into the clay vales and a deposit of boulder clay, which caused the River Trent to change direction from a west-east route.
Almost two thirds of the county is under 30metres above sea level. A large part of that is less than 2 or 3metres above sea level. The Fen and coastal plain is mistakenly thought of as Lincolnshire by many visitors on their way to the coastal resorts. One third of the Fen region is in Lincolnshire and the rest lies in Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire.
In the east, the hill ranges extend from the Humber coast to the north of the Fens, the chalk Wolds rise to 151metres above sea level. To the west is mainly limestone Heath that begins in the north and follows a line southwards. Here it broadens and becomes more undulating, to a height of 154 metres above sea level. The Kesteven Uplands dip down to the Fens in the east. The western side is known as the ‘cliff’ or ‘Lincoln edge’. To the west of the cliff is a mainly clay vale through which the river Trent flows to the river Humber and the North Sea.
There are numerous outcroppings of sand and gravel. The Isle of Axholme lies in the north west, beyond the river Trent. It was largely cut off from the surrounding area until it was drained during the seventeenth century. The River Ancholme flows through the clay vale between the Heath and the Wolds. This vale was formed by the actions of Anglian and Devensian glaciations and subsequent flooding. During the post Devensian warming the sea levels changed from minus 100 metres to plus eight metres – causing the Fenland. River Witham valley and river Trent valley to become flooded leaving Lincolnshire with just ‘Wolds’ and ‘Heath’ as islands.
Around 200,000 years ago these flints may have been made through the warmer interglacial period after the great Anglian ice age. Early hominids may have wondered over the open plains of Lincolnshire after the climate became warmer. Hand axes and other artefacts from the lower and middle Palaeolithic periods have been discovered at Whisby, Roxby, Risby, Warren, Barlings and Salmonby.
From 4000.C farming was developed and required greater planning, organisation as well as better tools. The earliest site discovered so far was at Tattershall Thorpe. Excavation discovered traces of wooden buildings. Other finds include pottery and other artefacts at Dragonby, Little Gonerby and Tallington.
Burial sites have been found, in the form of long burrows. These are mainly on the Wolds and 20 definite sites have been found. Often having pottery and other artefacts helping to identify dates from which they were possibly made.
Half way through the millennium, the Celtic people migration to England influenced cultural change, archaeological research and written evidence on coins. The new metal work had elaborate interlocking ‘S’ scrollwork and other normally symmetrical designs. Excellent examples were found in Lincolnshire including the Witham Shield from the Iron Age but constructed from Bronze. It is an impressive tribute to the skills of the craftsmen. It may have been produced for ceremonial purpose or symbolic rather than for battle.
The Romans
Almost a hundred years after the first Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC by Julius Caesar, the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 set about conquering the people and subjugating the tribes. Within a few years the Ninth Legion, Legio IX Hispana, had marched northwards and was in Lincolnshire. Their first bases in this area may have been at Longthorne, near Peterborough, Newton on Trent in Nottinghamshire and Great Casterton in Leicestershire and a further temporary one was possibly established in the Witham gap just to the east of a natural lake, the Brayford Pool. Soon there was a permanent fortification on the hilltop to the north of the gap. The high limestone position provided a dry site that was strategically advantageous, giving panoramic view over much of the surrounding countryside.
Lincoln was the most important settlement in the country, but Roman influence also extended into the countryside. When the army first entered the country, it probably marched along the ancient prehistoric track ways following the high limestone edge, from Great Casterton, and probably established bases at Ancaster and Navenby. This road was later called Ermine Street.
Straight roads were for rapid communication, but water transport was normally used for the movement of heavier goods. The construction of two canals, which were on an engineering par with the roads, further stamped the Romans' footprint across the countryside. The 11 mile Fosse Dyke canal, which connected Torksey on the river Nene near Peterborough, opened up the entire county to the transportation of heavy goods. The Carr Dyke also functioned as a catch-water drain and began the long process of draining the Fens.
Anglo-Saxon and Viking Lincolnshire
There is evidence that Saxon soldiers were in Lincolnshire by the end of the fourth century AD., broaches, buckles and strap ends. There seems to have been an army to take control on the withdrawal of the Roman army after 410. The Lincolnshire coast was well defended by the end of the fifth century.
Lincolnshire was never subjected to a uniform invasion. Without Roman control, any migration may have been swift along the rivers and the Humber estuary. It appeared to have been peaceful as there is evidence of both Saxon and British burials during the same period. With the passage of time, Anglo-Saxon ritual took over.
Place names can often identify the origin of settlements. In Lincolnshire there are over 300 places with the suffix – ton or – ham denoting Anglo-Saxon origins. These were relatively isolated farming communities producing enough food for the settlements consumption, compared to the Roman Britain, the ‘Dark Ages’.
The first Anglo Saxons were pagan, although there may have been a small Christian enclave in Lincoln, and elsewhere, after the Romans left. Christianity returned more generally to the county again when St Paulinus visited Lincoln and converted Bleacca. During this decade Paulinus had made York his base; he founded a Church there, from where to carry out his missionary work. By the beginning of the eighth century the impact of Christianity had resulted in the building of religious houses at Crowland, Bardney, Partney, West Halton, Barrow, Hibaldstow and Stow-by-Threekingham and, soon after, at Louth and South Kyme.
Whilst the movement of the Anglo Saxons can properly be called a migration, the settlement of the Vikings was, at least initially, a more violent affair. The prospect of gold riches from the monasteries motivated the first raiding parties. The massive availability of good farming land and a better climate were longer-term benefits. The Vikings had ships suitable to cross the North Sea and manoeuvrable enough, to navigate small rivers.
Britain was not their only destination for migration; they were also entering into northern Russia and Northern France.
Further waves of Vikings began to settle. Perhaps in the first instance just for the summer. Settlements developed along wide rivers and the farmable land, which committed the newcomers to stay.
The overall size of the Viking migration and distribution of settlements can be seen by looking at place names. According to the Doomsday Survey, Lincolnshire contains approximately 218 place names ending with ‘by’ which denotes anything from a farming village; the less common ‘thorpe’ which indicates settlements usually located on more marginal land; and ‘holm’ connected with low-lying land near a river or a lake.
By the early 10th Century Lincoln was seeing renewed economic expansion. Archaeological research shows the establishment of new streets and buildings within the old lower southern Roman enclosure, as well as substantial riverside activity and land reclamation.
During the last decade of the first millennium the Danes again turned their eyes to England, this time by launching sporadic raids along the east and south coasts. The Lindsey coast was almost certainly attacked at this time. Their aim was to extort ‘Danegeld’: protection money from the English. Substantial sums were involved, rising from £10,000 in 991 to a little less than £90,000 in 1018. In 1013 the Danish king, Swein Forkbeard, occupied Lindsey so that he could launch an attack southwards. From here he executed a successful campaign when he forced the English King, Athelread ‘The Unready’ to seek safety in Normandy.
The Impact of the Normans
Almost a thousand years after the Romans built their first fortresses, the county began a new phase of dramatic change brought about by William, Duke of Normandy’s invasion in 1066 and what is arguably the most famous event in English history: The battle of Hastings. Crowned King of England on Christmas day at Westminster Abbey, William, for the first four years on his reign, was in an uncertain position and he became involved in a number of campaigns throughout England and Wales to subdue dissident factions. One such campaign was in the summer of 1068 when he was forced to put down a rebellion in Yorkshire.
On Williams return to London, he and his army travelled through Lincolnshire ordering castles to be built, at Lincoln to control the North of the Country, and later at Stamford to control the South.
In 1069 Edgar the Atheling, who had been widely supported by the English on the death of King Harold at the battle of Hastings, returned to York from Scotland where he had taken to flight. Edgar was also supported by men from a 240-ship Danish Fleet, which had sailed up the Humber. Using York as his base, he began to plunder Lindsey but was forced to flee to the Isle of Axholme with a few supporters after being attacked by what must have been a substantial garrison from Lincoln.
In 1070 the Swedish King Swein himself entered the Humber in what was to be the last, if short lived, attempt to return England to the Danish empire, for William soon made a peace.
The presence of castles had both the desired oppressive effect on the local population and also provided the centre from which local government and law could be exercised. Castled were also places at which knights could fulfil their military obligations or the obligations of their lord.
The choice of Lincoln is not surprising. At the time of the conquest it was one of the largest and most prosperous towns in the country with a population of approximately 6,500 in 970 dwellings and was a thriving commercial centre. Lincoln castle was a typical Norman castle following a motte-and-bailey pattern of construction. Strategic considerations required the castle to be built quickly and it is recorded in Doomsday Book that 166 dwellings were destroyed to make way for the 13-acre site.
The first strategically sited castles were important for subduing ant possible revolts and were built on William’s orders; other castles were built by tenants-in-chief. These could also be of strategic importance as at Gainsborough and Owston on the river Trent. As the King became more secure and the threat of revolt receded, Lincoln castle became the centre of local government. By 1086, a shire-reeve or sheriff had been installed there, responsible for implementing royal laws and collecting taxes throughout the entire county. In other parts of the county castles were built to administer the substantial estates created by William and to receive their honorial entitlement. The first such castle was probably built at Castle Bytham by 1086 as the centre of the estates of Drew de Beurere, the lord of Holderness, in Lincolnshire. Later, Bishop Alexander (The Magnificent), who was responsible for rebuilding the cathedral after it was destroyed by fire in 1141, also had castles built at Sleaford and Newark. Most of Lincolnshire’s 32 castles were built during the First century after the Conquest.
Religious Houses in the Age of Faith
At the beginning of the third millennium it is difficult for us to understand how important religion was in a medieval life. Alongside William I’s military conquest came religious reform and with it a resurgence of religious fervour. The development of Lincoln Cathedral over some two and a half centuries was an embodiment of the development and strengthening of faith and, indeed, the ability of human beings to express their perception of Heaven and Earth, good and evil, in a building, which, even now, remains one of the most impressive in the world. Most major changes at Lincoln Cathedral were brought about by catastrophe – first in 1141 when the original wooden roof burned down and was replaced by stone vaulting, whose weight – and a failure to strengthen the walls and perhaps a minor earthquake – caused major damage in 1185 when the nave collapsed. Once again the cathedral was rebuilt and was later extended through the city walls to inter the mortal remains of saintly Bishop Hugh who died in 1200.
Lincoln Cathedral survives today, but was only one of a number of magnificent buildings in Lincolnshire, which were built to the glory of God. Each change at Lincoln represents not only the growing wealth of the church but a new and more intense phase in man’s perception of God. For example, when the central tower collapsed in 1237 it was not only rebuilt, but built higher; in 1311 it was capped with a spire of oak and lea rising to a height of 160 metres, making it the highest building in the world. Standing on the top of a hill, dominating the city and the surrounding area for miles around, it must have truly appeared to be touching heaven.
By the beginning of the 13th century it can be argued that monasteries had begun to loose their religious ideal. They were increasingly seen as being spiritually and physically divorced from those they were supposed to serve and had become commercial organisations and retreats for the wealthy. During the 13th century a new religious fervour was introduced to England by friars following the teaching of St Francis of Assisi in Italy and Spain’s St Dominic, who independently sought a less comfortable and more active way of living a Christian life. These mendicant friars representing a number of orders were to be found in the larger towns. In addition to Dominican and Franciscan friar, Augustinian, Carmelite and Friars of the Sack were located at Lincoln and Stamford; Dominican and Franciscan (Grey), Augustinian and Carmelite (White) at Boston, and Franciscan, Augustinian at Grimsby and a short-lived single house of Crutched Friars at Whaplode.
By 1086 there had already been a boom in church building throughout the county, and some 255 had been founded (out of an eventual total of around 700). These are some of the glories of the county that can be from Minster churches were often at the centre of royal estates such as Horncastle, Grantham and possibly Caistor.
Religious houses were affected by booms and slumps in the economy. In the 1320s there was a general decline in trade-which amongst other things caused a fall in the price of wool resulting in considerable hardship. They were able to borrow some money from the Jewish community, which was to be found in Lincoln and Stamford until in 1290 it was expelled by Edward I. Kirkstead, Louth Park and Revesby abbeys had been indebted to money lender Aaron of Lincoln. Add to this the effects of the Black Death in 1349.
Medieval Trade and Commerce
During the two and a half centuries after the Norman Conquest, Lincolnshire enjoyed a substantial economic boom, as a result of its position on the Eastern side of England with a coast facing mainland Europe, diverse geology important monasteries and relatively large urban and other populated centres. With the exception of Lincoln whose population in 1086 was more than 5,000 and Stamford with 2-3,000 populations, the boomtowns lay on the coast and in the Fens. Estimates suggest that Sutton in Holland’s population by 1332 had increased to over 5,000, Pinchbeck to between 4 and 4,500, and Spalding, Moulton, Weston and Fleet to about 3,000. The availability of land and the opportunity to engage in livestock husbandry, salt making, fishing and fowling brought about this situation. These were some of the largest concentrations of population in England, but because they remained agriculturally based they are not classified as towns, unlike Stamford, which had the characteristics of an urban centre, where almost 60percent of households were involved in commerce as shopkeepers, merchants or dealers and a significant number of leather-workers. The rest were victuallers, publicans or skilled artisans. Only 6per cent were agricultural workers.
The economy of medieval Lincolnshire was agriculturally based and most people made their livelihood from the land or in some craft or industry related directly to farming. For most people the farming year dictated a natural rhythm of rural life. Those who worked directly on the land had seasonal jobs – ploughing, sowing harvesting, threshing. The state of the harvest dictated the quality of their winter existence. Animal husbandry also had its own rhythm. Extensive flocks of sheep pastured on the marshland and fens for most of the year. Lambing occurred in the spring and shearing in the summer. Cattle were to be found on the clays and marshlands and were killed and salted in the autumn for the winter. Even those jobs common to most villages, such as brewing and thatching, had their own seasonal activities based on the availability of natural resources.
The 13th Century boom in agricultural activity happened largely because of a substantial increase in the population, which in turn stimulated agricultural production leading to a period of ‘high farming’. Thus a number of parishes were extended to bring into cultivation marginal land, particularly in the Wash and Coastal Lindsey areas and also on the edges of the Fens. There was also increased investment in new technology. The Doomsday Survey refers to the 380 water mills, but they were not suitable for use in much of the south of the county because of a lack of fast flowing rivers and streams. Windmills were used from the 12th century. They could be located almost anywhere and had a revolutionary effect on the developing local economy.
Along the length of Lincolnshire’s coasts were ports and havens from which to pursue coastal and European trade, which were of growing importance throughout the middle Ages. The river Witham was navigable from Lincoln to Boston thus providing a link, via the Fosse Dyke canal that was made navigable again in 1121, with the river Trent and thereby enhancing the status of Torksey as a port. This route became a major highway; by the Middle Ages River transport was particularly important for the trade in wool from the midland counties.
Defence of the Ream - RAF Lincolnshire
The Royal Air Force and the county of Lincolnshire are synonymous. During both world wars and the 'Cold War', Lincolnshire has been at the centre of the country's defence and in the air defence of Britain and in Britain's wider role in NATO. A rural setting, large areas of flat land and its eastern location has made it an ideal site for airfield. At the height of RAF activity during the second World War in the region of 30,000 acres (12,145 ha) of the county were given over to RAF stations, nearly all located on the well-drained chalk and limestone uplands. This was arguably the greatest impact on the landscape since the enclosures of the 18th and 19th centuries. Not only have the hardware of hangars, runaways and married quarters had an impact on the county but so too have the personnel. The impact on the local economy of thousands of servicemen and women and their families has been enormous. Moreover, there is a less tangible, but nevertheless real affinity with the RAF in the county amongst a large selection of the non-service population.
Although the RAF began officially on 1 April 1918, its predecessors the Royal Flying Corp (RFC), a branch of the army, and the royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) had both operated from the county for much of the First World War and, by 1918, some 37 military airfields were in use. Most, however, were little more than cleared fields that had been grassed to provide a runway. Leadenham, for example, was only 86 acres. Only seven aerodromes could be described as 'Operational', whereas 13 where emergency Landing grounds, and indication that in those early days, flying was still precarious. At that time, because of the temporary nature of most airfields, their function was easily changed. That there were operational airfields in the county suggests a perceived threat which had to be met. Indeed, the First World War saw Zeppelin raids which caused a public outcry. Some damage was done - for example at Cleethorpes in 1916 - and aircraft were scrambled on a number of occasions, from the RNAS at Killingholme and Cranwell and the RFC Home Defence Squadrons from Leadenham, Scampton, Kirton, Gainsborough, Elsham, Buckminster and Tydd St Mary. At the end of the war the number of aerodromes was quickly reduced, so that by the beginning of 1920 there was just a handful. The most important function of these bases in the inter-war period was training. This centred on Royal Air Force College Cranwell for both flying training and apprentice training, until the Apprentice School was moved to Halton, Buckinghamshire in 1926. A sparsely populated county with large areas of flat land, with coastal sites such as Donna Nook and Holbeach bombing ranges, Lincolnshire was ideal for flying training. Pilots were also trained at Digby and Grantham, while North Coates and Sutton Bridge were used for armaments training. Waddington was reopened in 1926 and became the home of Lincoln's Auxiliary Air Force Squadron.
The darkening war clouds of the 1930's brought a change in the function of RAF stations and during the Second World War Lincolnshire's role became increasingly important as the offensive bombing campaign grew. Bombers from the county could reach Germany and occupied Europe. Conversely, the Luftwaffe could reach Lincolnshire, and therefore fighter squadrons had to be stationed at Digby, Wellingore, Coleby Grange to the south of Lincoln, and Kirton-in-Lindsey and Hibaldstow in the north to intercept German bombers and defend the airfields. Aircraft also flew out over the North Sea on convoy patrols. However, the county is best known for bombers. In March 1943 there were 11 bomber stations in the country, rising to 29 bases operating Avro Lancaster's in April 1945, and the name 'bomber county' remains today. Lincolnshire, therefore, played a most important part in the defeat of Nazi Germany, especially from 1942 when the bombing offensive increased. It was not uncommon to see the sky over Lincolnshire filled with Lancaster's en route to form part of the 1,000 bomber sorties over Germany. The first such raid was on Cologne in May 1942. Other raids were more specialised. On 16 May 1943, under the code name Operation Chatise, 18 Lancaster's of 617 Squadron took off from RAF Scampton under the leadership of Wing Commander Guy Gibson to attack the Mohne, Eider and Sorpe dams in an attempt to flood and destroy the industries of the Ruhr valley.
Bombing raids were made almost nightly, weather permitting, and enormous losses were suffered by bomber crews. The memorial book in the services Chapel in Lincoln Cathedral lists more than 25,000 names of airmen killed in action from air fields in or near Lincolnshire. The worst night was that of 30 March 1944 when 381 aircraft were sent from Lincolnshire and 44 failed to return, lost over Nuremberg. Many memorials are to be found in the country; one example is at the entrance to what used to be RAF Wickenby, in memory of the Canadian, Australian, New Zealander as well as British airmen. Wickenby was part of No.1 Group Bomber Command between 1942 and 1945, flying firstly Vickers Armstrong Wellingtons, later Avro Lancaster's and, Lastly, the Dehavilland Mosquito. The memorial reads:
In memory of the One Thousand and Eighty Men of 12 and 626 Squadrons who Gave Their Lives on Operations from This Airfield in the Offensive against Germany and the Liberation of occupied Europe.
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